Tag: MSL

Mars scientists are wrestling with a problem. Ample evidence says ancient Mars was sometimes wet, with water flowing and pooling on the planet’s surface. Yet, the ancient sun was about one-third less warm and climate modellers struggle to produce scenarios that get the surface of Mars warm enough for keeping water unfrozen.

A leading theory is that ancient Mars had a thicker carbon-dioxide atmosphere forming a greenhouse-gas blanket, helping to warm the surface. However an analysis of data from NASA’s Mars rover Curiosity, suggests that even 3.5 billion years ago there was too little carbon dioxide present in the Martian atmosphere to provide enough greenhouse-effect warming to prevent water freezing.

The source of these findings is the very same bedrock in which the rover found sediments from an ancient lake in which microbes might have thrived. When analysing the bedrock, Curiosity detected no carbonate minerals, leading to the conclusion that Mars’ atmosphere was almost devoid of carbon dioxide when the lake existed 3.5 billion years ago. And that’s a quandary for scientists.

“We’ve been particularly struck with the absence of carbonate minerals in sedimentary rock the rover has examined,” Thomas Bristow, the principal investigator for Curiosity’s Chemistry and Mineralogy (CheMin) instrument,  the primary source of the analysis work. “It would be really hard to get liquid water even if there were a hundred times more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere than what the mineral evidence in the rock tells us.”

In water, carbon dioxide combines with positively charged ions such as magnesium and ferrous iron to form carbonate minerals, and CheMin can identify carbonate if it makes up just a few percent of the rock. Yet Curiosity has made no definitive detection of carbonates in any lakebed rocks sampled since it landed in Gale Crater in 2012. However, other minerals – magnetite and clay minerals – not only indicated in the same rocks indicate the ions needed to form carbonates were readily available, they also provide evidence that subsequent conditions never became so acidic that carbonates would have dissolved away over time.

The dilemma between a warm, wet Mars and the lack of carbonates has actually been growing for years. For two decades researchers have been using spectrometers on Mars orbiters to search for carbonate that could have resulted from an early era of more abundant carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, only to find far less than anticipated. Yet clues such as isotope ratios in today’s Martian atmosphere continue to indicate the planet once held a much denser atmosphere than it does now, which has largely been seen as being rich in carbon dioxide. Thus, a paradox has arisen.

It had been thought that the lack of evidence for carbonates when seen from orbit could simply be the result of  dust covering them, or the carbonates having moved underground. Finding them would thus resolve the paradox and reveal what had happened. However, the Curiosity results tend to overturn this idea. Simply put, the rover has failed to detect carbonate minerals precisely where they should be located, within rocks formed from sediments deposited under water.

“This analysis fits with many theoretical studies that the surface of Mars, even that long ago, was not warm enough for water to be liquid,” said Robert Haberle, a Mars-climate scientist at NASA Ames. “It’s really a puzzle to me.”

One idea put forward is that perhaps the lake was never a body of open water, but was covered in ice. The problem with this idea is none of the expected evidence for an ice-covered lake, such as large and deep cracks called ice wedges, or “dropstones,” which become embedded in soft lakebed sediments when they penetrate thinning ice, have been found. Thus, scientists have a lot of head scratching and theorising to do in order to make sense of the dilemma.

Traversing Mars with Curiosity

Ever wondered what it would be like to witness Curiosity trundling across the surface of Mars? Seán Doran has. What’s more, he’s been putting together animated films using Digital Terrain Model (DTM) data from the HiRISE imaging system on NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter together with photomosaics of images from the rover, and combining them with a drivable correctly scaled model of the rover to provide movies of Curiosity as it rolls across Mars.

Continue reading “Space Sunday: Martian quandaries, universal epochs and Jovian journeys” →

For more than a year now, NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory rover, Curiosity, has been slowly climbing the lower slopes of “Mount Sharp” – more formally called Aeolis Mons, the 5 kilometre (3 mi) high layered deposit extending off of the central peak of Gale Crater. Whilst still on the lower slopes of the mound, the rover has already found minerals absent from lower levels within the crater, and these, together with the ample evidence for water once having existed in the crater, further point to Mars perhaps having once been habitable.

Details of the latest findings from Curiosity were presented at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union (AGU), which commenced on Monday, December 12th, in San Francisco. Making the presentation were members of the current MSL science team and its former principal investigator, John Grotzinger, – the Fletcher Jones Professor of Geology at Caltech.

Mineral veins are an important way to study the movements of water within a location, as they are result of cracks in layered rock being filled with chemicals that are dissolved in water. This alters the chemistry and composition of rock formations, providing vital clues on the prevailing conditions around the time they were deposited.

In the case of the slopes most recently examined by Curiosity, the science team have found that hematite, clay minerals and boron are more abundant than has been found in the lower, older layers. These point to a complex environment where groundwater interactions led to clay-bearing sediments and diverse minerals being deposited over time, effectively creating a “chemical reactor” which, although no actual evidence for Martian microbes having existed within the minerals has been found, still creates an environment which may have been beneficial life.

“There is so much variability in the composition at different elevations, we’ve hit a jackpot,” Grotzinger said during the presentation. “A sedimentary basin such as this is a chemical reactor. Elements get rearranged. New minerals form and old ones dissolve. Electrons get redistributed. On Earth, these reactions support life.”

The increasing presence of hematite found by the rover as it continues up “Mount Sharp” suggests both warmer conditions and more interaction with the atmosphere at higher levels. In addition, the increasing concentrations of hematite, relative to magnetite at lower levels further suggests that iron oxidisation increased over time, creating the “chemical reactor” Grotzinger referenced: the loss of electrons through the oxidisation process can provide the energy necessary for life to sustain itself.

Another ingredient increasing in recent measurements by Curiosity is the element boron, which the rover’s laser-shooting Chemistry and Camera (ChemCam) instrument has been detecting within calcium sulphate mineral veins. Boron is famously associated with arid sites where much water has evaporated away. However, the amounts found so far are so minor, they make it much harder to determine the environmental implications of their presence.

Currently the team is considering at least two possibilities. In the first, the evaporation of the lake thought to have once existed within Gale Crater formed a boron-containing deposit in an overlying layer, not yet reached by Curiosity, then water later re-dissolved the boron and carried it down through a fracture network into the layers the rover is currently investigating, where it accumulated along with fracture-filling vein minerals. In the second, changes in the chemistry of clay-bearing deposits, such as evidenced by the increased hematite, affected how groundwater picked up and dropped off boron within the local sediments.

Continue reading “Space Sunday: Curiosity, Dragon, Juno and James Webb” →

NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory rover, Curiosity, has said “farewell” to “Murray Buttes” in a stunning series of images, as it continues its climb up the slopes of “Mount Sharp”, a massive mound of deposited material located at the central impact peak of Gale Crater.

The mesas of “Murray Buttes” mark the upper extend of the transitional “Murray Formation”, where the material deposited during the earliest centuries of “Mount Sharp’s” formation merge with the rock comprising the crater floor. Curiosity has been passing by the area of the buttes for a little over a month now, carrying out examinations of the rock surface and gathering samples of mudstone for analysis.

Believed to be the eroded remnants of ancient sandstone that originated when winds deposited sand after lower “Mount Sharp” had formed, the buttes rival anything of a similar nature found on Earth in terms of dramatic looks and structure. So much so that while we’re hardly likely to see Clint Eastwood ride his horse around the base of one, they would nevertheless fit neatly into a Sergio Leone western.

Several of the pictures – mosaics of images captured by the rover which have been white-balanced to match typical Earth daylight lighting conditions and then stitched together to offer complete scenes – reveal the deeply layered nature of the sandstone, sandwiched in what is referred to as “cross-bedding”. This indicates that the formations are the result of both wind deposition of material and then wind erosion, further confirming the idea that “Mount Sharp” was initially formed as a formed as a result of Gale Crater once being home to a great lake, before the waters receded and wind action took over.

The images were taken as Curiosity traversed the base of the final butte, where it gathered a final drilling sample on September 9th. On completion of the sample-gathering, the rover will continue farther south and higher up Mount Sharp, leaving these spectacular formations behind.

The Sand Dunes of Shangri-La

On September 7th, NASA issued a video showing the latest radar images captured by the Cassini probe of the surface of Saturn’s largest moon, mighty Titan. The data was gathered as the probe swept by the huge moon – which is blanketed by a thick atmosphere and is known to have lakes and rivers of liquid hydrocarbons on its surface – at a distance of some 976 km (607 mi) on July 25th, 2016 – one of the closest passes over the moon the vehicle has ever made.

Because of the moon’s thick atmosphere, conventional camera systems cannot be used to probe Titan’s mysteries, so Cassini uses a radar system to “map” surface features in black-and-white. Of particular interest to mission scientists during the July 25th flyby was a dark patch along Titan’s equator, previously images by the radar system at much greater distances and dubbed “Shangri-La”. And area which revealed itself to be – in part – a region of linear dunes, mostly likely comprised of grains derived from hydrocarbons that have settled out of Titan’s atmosphere, and which have been sculpted by Titan’s surface winds. Scientists can use the dunes to learn about winds, the sands they’re composed of, and highs and lows in the landscape.

Also captured by the radar is an arena dubbed “Xanadu annex”, believed to be an out-thrust of chaotic terrain from a region dubbed “Xanadu” just to the north of “Shangri-La”. First imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope in 1994, just before the Cassini / Huygens mission was launched, “Xanadu” and its annex are thought to be remnants of the moon’s icy crust before it was covered by organic sediments from the atmosphere.

OSIRIS-REx Lifts-off as an Asteroid Sweeps By Earth

On Thursday, September 8th, NASA successfully launched OSIRIS-REx on a 7-year trek to reach asteroid Bennu, where it will gather surface samples and return them to Earth for analysis. The mission, which I previewed in my last Space Sunday report, lifted-off flawlessly from Space Launch Complex 41 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station at 19:05 EDT, atop its Atlas V booster at the start of a journey which will carry it a total of 7.2 billion kilometres (4.5 billion miles).

Witnessing the launch was principal investigator Dante Lauretta, from the University of Arizona. “I can’t tell you how thrilled I was this evening, thinking of the people who played a part in this,” he said following the launch.

“This represents the hopes and dreams and blood, sweat and tears of thousands of people who have been working on this for years.”

The mission will gather samples from the surface of the asteroid – a remnant from the formation of the solar system – and will also map Bennu’s orbit around the Sun and the influences affecting it.

This is because the asteroid is a near-Earth object (NEO): an asteroid which periodically passes across Earth’s orbit around the Sun, and can come very close to our planet whilst doing so. So close, in fact, that some estimates of Bennu’s future orbit suggest it will collide with Earth towards the end of the next century.

Continue reading “Space Sunday: mesas, dunes NEOs, comets and launches” →

August 2016 sees NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity rack up four (terrestrial) years of operations on the surface of Mars.

The rover marked this anniversary rather quietly, by preparing to take further rock samples, this time from a target dubbed “Marimba”. Once gathered, the samples will be subjected to on-board analysis by Curiosity using the compact laboratory systems contained the rover’s body.

The sampling take place as the rover is engaged in a multi-month ascent of a mudstone geological unit as it continues its climb towards higher and progressively younger geological areas on “Mount Sharp” (more correctly, Aeolis Mons), which will include some rock types not yet explored.

In the meantime, examining the samples gathered from “Marimba” will allow a direct comparison with mudstone samples gathered further down the slopes of “Mount Sharp” and from the flatlands of Gale Crater. This will enable scientists to  build a more complete picture of the mineral and chemical  environment the rover is travelling through, and so further understand the general conditions which may have once have existed within the crater.

Goodnight from a Lunar Jade Rabbit

China has finally bid farewell to Yutu (“Jade Rabbit”, named for the companion to the Moon goddess Chang’e), its first lunar robotic explorer, after 31 months of surface operations.

The little solar-powered rover arrived on the lunar surface as part of Chain’s Chang’e 3 lander / rover mission on December 13, 2013, and was deployed from the lander some  7.5 hours after touch-down.

However, due to the vast temperature differential experienced between the sunlit and shadowed parts of the rover at the time of the landing, operations didn’t commence until December 21st, when the rover was uniformly lit by the Sun. It’s first activity was to drive part-way around its parent lander and photograph it. After this, the rover travelled some 40 metres (130 ft) from the lander to commence independent science operations studying the lunar surface.

Yutu was designed to operate for just three months and travel up to 10 km (6.2 mi) within an area of 3 square kilometres (1.2 sq mi). Following its expose to the first 14-day long lunar “night”, the rover resumed operations in January 2014. However, as the second lunar night period approached (lasting 14 terrestrial days), the rover suffered a glitch in its drive mechanisms, leaving it susceptible to the harsh cold of the night-time, and on February 12th, following its second Lunar night, the rover was declared lost … only to resume communications with Earth within 24 hours.

Since that time, although immobilised, the little rover has maintained almost regular contact with Earth, but with each night period taking an increasing tolls on its systems. Even so, its continued survival gained it a huge and loyal following on the Chinese micro-blogging site, Weibo, where in a leaf firmly pulled from NASA’s book of social media engagement, Yutu had a first-person account.

It was via that social media account that Yutu’s final demise was announced, as if from the rover itself, on August 2nd 2016:

This time it really is goodnight. There are still many questions I would like answers to, but I’m the rabbit that has seen the most stars. The Moon has prepared a long dream for me, I don’t know what it will be like – will I be a Mars explorer, or be sent back to Earth?

The message gained a huge response from the rover’s 600,000 followers, and the Chinese space agency officially confirmed the rover had “died”, on Wednesday, August 3rd.

Continue reading “Space Sunday: of Martian and lunar robots, distant worlds and ET” →